Arabic calligraphy is a genuine Islamic and Arabic art

Arabic calligraphy is a genuine Islamic and Arabic art. It is, no doubt, the most important element of the Arabic legacy, as it is the pot wherein all Arab cultures, over succeeding generations, are merging to come up with such eternal heritage.

Its forms, however, differ, as Arabic calligraphy has surpassed the end of writing process itself to reach eternity in terms of design and styles; further becoming one of the outstanding features of Islamic arts, constituting the common denominator for all Arab and Islamic arts, either they were taking shapes of fixed buildings or mobile antiques. It was, also, used in photographing and mosques decorating, as there is not one Arab monument void of Arabic calligraphy art tang.

Difference between art & writing

There emerged a difference between the process of writing itself and the art of writing, as the first is the way of conveying ideas and the second is the medium for feelings, emotions and sentiments. The art of Arabic calligraphy, anyway, was developed over ages to become spiritual engineering by means of a writing tool. History & origin.

Calligraphy, as a matter of fact, was and will remain playing fundamental role in the history of mankind, as it is a key tool of establishing communication among peoples; conveying and preserving human heritage along with its experiences over times and maintaining civilizations from generation to another.

The need for writing and codifying has emerged with the dawn of the history, as such was phased in through five stages:

1 - Picture writing stage; or expressing ideas through pictures.
2 - Symbolic stage; or expressing sense via symbolic pictures.
3 - Syllabic stage in which the picture implied sound.
4 - Phonetic stage that used pictures of things composed of the first Alphabet of a picture's indication and letter.
5 - Alphabetical stage which had new marks similar to vertical and horizontal screws.
Chinese, Hittities and Hieroglyphic are the oldest calligraphies on Earth which, up till now are still a mystery.

Arabic calligraphy evolving

Theories that fathom the evolving of Arabic calligraphy are too many. Yet, the origin of Arabic calligraphy and its history are still not definite. Researchers, however, have realized that the Arabs, in old times, were not knowledgeable of calligraphy until they interacted with urbanities who considered calligraphy of social necessity. This happened as Arabs resided the remote areas surrounding the Arab Peninsula. When the Roman Empire got weaker Arabs' position improved, as they settled in the south of Hegaz (Saudi Arabia) and Aqaba Gulf. They had geographical and political entity, the most important among that was a kingdom known as AlNabat in Jordan.

Arabs, then, derived one of Aramic calligraphies using it but keeping their own Arabic language. So, it became clear that Arabic calligraphy has undergone three phases: First, Aramic calligraphy which tends to squaring. Second, Napty calligraphy, and then came the stage of maturity with the presence of Arabic letters which tend to take circular shapes.

Arabic calligraphy developing did not stop at this limit, but it was further enhanced. At the very outset, letters had no dots but during Abbasside era, dots and punctuation marks were developed, as Arabic calligraphy was spread when Islam prevailed simply because it became the main instrument of the Islamic religion. Learning Arabic be, came quite related to religious aspect, the matter which finally led to its speedy outspread as a language.

Arabic calligraphy converted to decoration, as Arab kings and rulers favored writers who gained wide reputation and vast fame. Let alone, they, also, were poured by money to encourage them.

Accordingly, Arabic calligraphy became the common grounds for developing both Arabic and Islamic arts. Arabs have mastered making ink of natural substances, as they used seeds of yam and glue. The black color was preferred but there were other colors: red, blue, green, brown, purple and ruby. Sometimes, fragrances were to be added to give ink good smell.

Art of calligraphy and its development

As Muslim Arab artists, at the outset, declined to sculpture and pencil live pictures, taking the trend of developing pottery art with oriented decoration tange, Arabic calligraphy has for this reason improved to a great measure. Arab artists had to unleash their artistic and creative potentials through different means, using Arabic calligraphy as a rich and easy way to create new aspects of art.
Arabic calligraphy reached its peak in the Abbasside preferred but there were other colors: red, blue, green, brown, purple and ruby. Sometimes, fragrances were to be added to give ink good smell.

Calligraphy substances took the form of boards, stones, pottery and leather, but at the very end of the Omiade State 133 AH and at the outset of Abbasside State, great revolution was made in calligraphy material when Arabs discovered the way of making papers in Samarkand, Central Asia, as paper making which had been secret was circulated to reach Baghadad and then Damascus, prevailing all Arab States and spreading to Europe as well.

AlFostat, the first Islamic and Egyptian capital city, was famous as one calligraphy improving center. Ibn Tollon Mosque harbors unique models of terrific masterpieces, among which the simple Cofi calligraphy.

Baghdad getting weak following the Tatar invasion, Arabic calligraphy was completely conveyed to Egypt. The Fatimid State's people inclined to luxury, decoration and beautification. Also the outstanding writers, in such age, were of Egypt.

They, further, mastered the Fatimid Cofi calligraphy, and the Egyptian school was the most celebrated among other schools of calligraphy as it overdid its opposite numbers in developing that art. Schools of calligraphy in Egypt remained abounding in vast experiences until the era, and outspread in north Africa, due to the Arab advent to Egypt in 641 AD when Egypt nursed that kind of art and fostered it, till the calligraphy of Hegaz was converted and oriented to Arabic calligraphy.

Artists of Syria moved to Egypt and with them the secrets of mastering Cofi calligraphy. With the advent of the Ottoman State in 1517 AD, Arabic calligraphy art moved to Istanbul which became its center of improving and developing, as Turkey adopted Latin letters in writing.

Arabic calligraphy has thrived once again in Egypt and Arab countries to revive potentialities of artists who mastered such art and developed it. affected by philosophy and drawing. Drawing man and animal became motifs of Islamic decoration which depended on calligraphy, for this reason this kind of art could be deemed as surface calligraphy.

Since the 8th century, Arabic calligraphy left, in Europe, an impact reflecting decoration element, due to the direct interaction with Islamic civilization, especially in Italy, Spain and France. Kings, at that time, used Arabic calligraphy in their writings and messages

In modern times, we take for granted the privilege of knowing how to read

In modern times, we take for granted the privilege of knowing how to read, write, and express ourselves with words. The art of writing is a creative gift that is often overlooked in our world of technological breakthroughs. Today we have computers with word counters, spell checkers, rhyming dictionaries, and endless resources of information, that has produced a world full of instant novelists, book writers and poets. In ancient Egyptian times, however, only the scribes and a few select people knew how to read and write. The task of recording history, expressing everyday and extraordinary happenings was the responsibility of the scribe in ancient Egypt.

Having the title of scribe was an honorable position for one to hold in Egyptian culture. Future scribes were the only people in ancient Egypt who received a formal education. For all other stations in life, the people would participate in apprenticeship situations. In order to become an "official" scribe, your father had to be a scribe, and his father had to be a scribe, and so on. Therefore, one was born into a position of potential scribe much in the same way as one becomes royalty by being born into a royal family. Scribes had a significant amount of respect in the ancient Egyptian world. People viewed the scribes as being spiritual because they had the ability to do something most people didn't understand. They had vision and insight, what we call inspiration and creativity. Writers and historians today respect the gifts of creativity the scribes left for us to see, and we can appreciate the time it took to create something that would last the tests of time.

Being a scribe was an extremely difficult job because in total, there were hundreds of different hieroglyphs to remember. Hieratic is what Egyptian scribes were taught, a series of brush strokes to express thoughts and reach eternity. Some hieroglyphs were contained within an oval and were read from top to bottom with some images modifying the ones above. The amount of information that a scribe carried in his mind was enormous. The scribes used a kind of paper called papyrus, which was made from reeds otherwise known as the papyrus plant. Papyrus, the writing surface named after the plant from which it is made, was manufactured as early as the first Egyptian dynasty, circa 3100 BC. The emergence of writing and the concomitant use of papyrus seem to be a necessary outcome of the imperial bureaucracy. The Egyptians invariably used Papyrus until the 9th-11th centuries, that is, for 4000 years.

While in school, student scribes didn't have the convenience of papyrus, as this paper was reserved for mature, practicing scribes. Instead, broken pieces of pottery were used for educational purposes. Children destined to be scribes were sent to formal school at the age of nine and left the school at the age of twelve to begin work. The days were long and the work was difficult. The teachers were very strict, but the end result was a brilliant writer. At Deir el-Medina, the only school of which there is evidence, the initial training seems to have been copying passages from a cursive hieroglyphic text called the "Book of Kemyt." From there the scribe progressed to classic works of literature and, after moving to a job, to contemporary miscellanies of model letters, satirical compositions, poems and panegyrics, which may have been set as daily exercises by pupil-masters.

The sheer volume of information that the scribes left for us is staggering when you consider the crude methods used to record. Margaret, a writer from Arizona, had this to say about the scribes, "The scribes recorded so many details that we use machines to record today. They wrote a great deal about life and that aspect has helped us, more than anything, to know them and their world. We know details that we would have never known if they hadn't taken the time to record them. Their attention to detail has allowed us to understand the intimate details of their lives, the rituals and religious practices, and the art of mummification. Scribes were the clerks and secretaries of ancient Egypt, without them the society's customs and traditions would have been lost forever."

A seated scribe holding a papyrus roll was one of the most popular subjects in their art, and even the highest officials chose to be depicted this way. Scribes were highly valued and respected, as a manifestation of the god of writing Thoth. The early Egyptians recognized that writing was the foundation of ordered life and government. Ideas, discoveries, wisdom and experience no longer died with the individual, but could be transmitted through endless generations, right down to us, in the form of writing. We still read the fine literature, religious and scientific texts of these early scribes.

In ancient Egypt mythology, Thoth was the god of the moon, god of wisdom, the measurer of time, and the inventor of writing and numbers. He is credited with devising the standard 365-day year. Thoth was depicted as a man with the head of an Ibis bird, and carried a pen and scrolls upon which he recorded all things. He was shown as attendant in almost all the major scenes involving the gods, but especially at the judgement of the deceased. Thoth served as messenger to the gods, serving in Osirian myths as the chief advisor and minister of Osiris. Thoth was the inventor of hieroglyphs, which the Egyptians called, medju-netjer, "words of the gods."

Ahmas was another known scribe. He was born in Egypt around 1680 BC and died around 1620 BC. He is known for writing, "Accurate reckoning, the entrance into the knowledge of all existing things and all obscure secrets." Ahmas wrote the Rhind Papyrus, named after the Scottish discoverer. Ahmas claimed no ownership to the creation of the content on the papyrus. He declared that the material was from an earlier work of around 2000 BC and he was "only" a scribe.

Scribes have inspired pieces of artwork for thousand of years, withstanding the test of time, as intended. The very act of making the image of a scribe immortal speaks volumes about the respect they received in ancient Egypt. Wendi L. Cali, a writer in Las Vegas, Nevada, received as a gift, a statue of an Egyptian scribe, still wearing dust from Cairo. Late one night, while looking at the unique and foreign object, Cali wrote the following poem, inspired by an ancient Egyptian scribe

The Ancient Egyptian Word

How do we know so much about the ancient lives of the Egyptian people? True, we have statues and also artwork covering the walls of tombs. This gives us a pretty close idea of what ancient Egyptian lives were like. But the best picture comes from the words they wrote. The ancient Egyptians wrote down everything-from magic spells and curses to medical procedures and lists of food supplies given to the pyramid builders.

Actually, there weren't many writers or readers. Archaeologists estimate that maybe only one out of a hundred ancient Egyptians were literate. This may seem quite unusual considering that writing was all around on temples, statues and other public buildings. But the fact that so few people could read and write gave the individual who could-the scribe-very high prestige in ancient Egyptian society. It was, in fact, one of the most important occupations in ancient Egypt.

Most scribes performed clerical tasks for high priests and officials. They also drew up marriage contracts among common people and property agreements between buyer and seller. But the knowledge of writing was essential for anyone who aspired to leadership or administrative careers.

Tough training

Scribes had to learn more than 700 hieroglyphic signs-some representing ideas and objects; others representing sounds. Because the language was so complex, young scribes-almost always boys from wealthy or royal families-would attend school for years to become adept at writing and reading. And the training was rigorous. Boys as young as six or seven would practice writing on ostraca-flat stones or broken pieces of clay pottery. Archaeologists have found many ostraca with texts of amusing animal tales or stern moral tracts that were dictated by the scribal teachers. Students also had to learn mathematics so that a number of high-level professions would be
open to them: tax collector, treasurer, quartermaster or architect.

There is evidence that unruly students were handled with the teacher's stick. Although most scribes were male, archeologists have found some proof that a number of women were literate; they were mostly priestesses or daughters of royalty.

It took many years for a scribe to reach the point that he could be trusted to work on his own. But successful scribes enjoyed an enviable life free of manual labor. We see them depicted in statues (commonly, the seated scribe with crossed legs and linen kilt and writing materials in his lap) which show the prestige and power achieved by these ancient Egyptian writers.

Tools of the trade

In ancient Egypt, you would recognize a scribe immediately. He would be the upright man with soft hands-no calluses from manual labor--carrying a wooden palette with brushes and reed pens and a roll of papyrus under his arm. The palettes were used as writing boards which were equipped with a slot to hold pens. Scribes wrote in two primary colors--black and red-for most records.

Papyrus (the first paper in the world) was the other essential for the scribe. Papyrus was made by cutting long slices from the inner white pith of the of papyrus reed stalks (which was the sacred plant of northern Egypt) and laying them out crosswise to form a mat. This was then pounded with a mallet into a sticky sheet and left to dry under a weight. In modern Egypt today, there are papyrus institutes you can visit which use almost the exact method to produce papyrus, mostly for paintings and decorative items.

Once the plant's juices had evaporated, the sheet was light and pliable. You could bend it and roll it and pull it-and it would remain intact. It also absorbed the ancient Egyptian pigment very well. To begin using it, the scribe had only to burnish the papyrus sheet with a piece of wood or ivory. Then he could begin to write the words that truly revealed the genius and magic of ancient Egypt.

I was shopping with my family at a large computer store and spotted PHARAOH

I am not much of a game player. I can’t handle much more than a game or two of "Go Fish" with my daughter. I like thinking games, and my favorite all-time game is Password, so if you know what that is, you are, like me, showing your "maturity."

Computer games and simulation games are completely new to me. Last summer, I was shopping with my family at a large computer store and spotted "PHARAOH," a part of the city-building series by Impressions Games and Sierra Studios. Of course, I was inspired by the opportunity to "build a kingdom, rule the Nile" and so we not only purchased the game, but also the official expansion sequel, CLEOPATRA.

We came home, loaded up the game and my husband played. I kept my distance. My 4th grader played. I kept my distance. My best friend from high school, Sherra, came for a visit and she played. (She is a real game player, as she knows how to play bridge and has won at MYST.) I saw more of the back of her head than her face on that visit – we could barely pry her away from the computer. She loved the game so much that when she returned to her town, she went out and bought her own game.

Meanwhile, this winter I decided that it was time to overcome my ‘game-o-phobia’ and try this Pharaoh. And I was pleasantly surprised.

I started by reading the instruction manual while waiting one Saturday morning at a swim meet. That gave me a good overview of the game, even if I couldn’t remember all of the details. Then, my daughter showed me how to start and helped me boot it up, etc. (She loves to show mommy what to do.) We opted for the easiest level of difficulty.

The opening graphics and animations of the game are great. It was reminiscent of the animations in the movie, Prince of Egypt. You are treated to a very nice tour of the creators’ vision of ancient Egypt, and are greeted by the Pharaoh. You have the opportunity to pick your family name when you begin the game. Everyone must start at the beginning, the earliest dynasty and progress through the various dynasties by accomplishing your mission, as defined at the beginning of that dynasty. You get to build houses, roads, and water wells, attract wanderers who come to settle in your village, you can build temples and construct granaries. After successfully accomplishing my first challenge, I thought, this isn’t so tough…

As you progress through the dynasties, you are challenged with more events and people to take care of and provide for. You must have enough money in your treasury to build and even to tear something down. The ancient gods of course, must be appeased, with temples, shrines and festivals. Intruding marauders may come and attack you and the Nile will flood and affect your village. Fire stations and architect’s posts are also necessary to maintain your buildings, granaries and mining operations. You, the ruler of your kingdom, must consider all of these conditions and their inter-relationships, as you grow your empire. Will you be successful or not?

The graphics in Pharaoh are great. I found myself absorbed by the graphics and the music, wondering how my gold mines were doing and hmmm… should I build Bast another temple to curry her favor? Oh, yes, I need some more workers and a way for feeding those workers (granaries and hunting lodges). And don’t forget to entertain your villagers! They need juggler’s schools and booths for performing.

I will say that after a few days on the second level, I was wondering, what more do I have to do to get through this level?? I upped the difficulty level, which caused some of my buildings to burn or collapse, however, I was able to continue providing for my people. I discovered that, at the beginning of the game, is a link to ‘the Pharaoh site.’ So I went to this link, hosted by Impression Games, and found lots of useful information and knowledge, not the least of which is the button for the ‘cheat codes’ on the sidebar of the site. I am not going to say too much about those codes, other than that when you play the game, be sure to try out "Hippo Stomp" and "Side Show." The geniuses behind this game have a good sense of humor, too

When the tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamun was opened

When the tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamun was opened, among the luxurious contents found within were various beautifully crafted jars and containers. To the excitement of the excavators, one particular jar was discovered to contain a perfumed unguent, still radiantly fragrant after so many centuries.

Unguent is the classical word used to describe what modern English-speakers might better understand as an ointment or a solid perfume. Despite the occasional ancient Egyptian image or the discovery of what certainly seems to be functional distillery equipment in the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, as far as we know today the distillation process was not popularized until the 10th century of our time. Thus, Egyptian perfumes were very different in texture from the liquids now considered "perfumes". For a close modern comparison, consider the solid perfumes currently imported from India, packaged in small carved wooden or stone containers. (The resemblance is in texture, presentation and appearance, not necessarily in fragrance.)

The perfumed ointment found in Tutankhamun's tomb was of a solid nature, although it was noted that it melted and became more viscous within the heat of a hand. Observers at the time found the aroma similar to coconut oil and also remarked that it resembled the scent of valerian (Valeriana officinalis), the first tip-off to what the jar probably contained.

The perfume was analyzed in 1926 and was found to consist of a "neutral animal fat" and a resin or balsam. At the time they were unable to be more specific. However, the primary fragrant component is now believed to be valerian's close cousin, the ancient and precious spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi).

Still reasonably rare and reasonably expensive, most find spikenard's name much more familiar than its fragrance. Its reputation is ancient. It is an ingredient in some formulas for Kyphi, the famed sacred Egyptian temple perfume. Spikenard was also a component of the sacred incense offered in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem. It is mentioned no less than three times in the Song of Songs. The ancient Greeks had a beloved perfume fragrance based on spikenard. Spikenard's main claim to fame comes from its prominence in the New Testament. It was ointment of spikenard that Mary of Bethany (whether she is one and the same with Mary Magdalene, now matron saint of perfumers, is still the subject of intense debate, as it has been for centuries) used to anoint the feet of Jesus Christ, filling the entire room with its aroma. Rather than its wonderful fragrance, however, what is most famous about spikenard is its high cost. Two of the gospels comment on its price. Judas Iscariot was apparently offended at the anointing of Jesus, demanding to know why the jar of ointment wasn't sold and the proceeds given to the poor. In the light of its discovery in Tutankhamun's tomb, it can be appreciated that spikenard was truly a fragrance fit for a king.

Why was spikenard so expensive? Because of where it grows and the difficulty in obtaining it. Spikenard is not native to Egypt, Punt or the Middle East. It is native to the Himalayas and grows at high altitudes. Its use in the ancient world is a demonstration of their sophisticated trade routes and of the importance placed on aromatic material: they went to a lot of trouble to obtain this little root. Spikenard was packaged in carved alabaster boxes, carefully brought down by caravan and exported over the ancient world. As recently as one hundred years ago, spikenard was imported from Nepal to Egypt for use as a folk medicine. Beyond various medicinal uses, like valerian, it has relaxing, sedative properties, spikenard was anciently believed to bear mystical and romantic powers.

Today, spikenard is available as an essential oil. It is steam distilled from dried and crushed rhizomes and roots, resulting in a pale golden liquid. What does it smell like? Not necessarily what you might expect a perfume to smell like, if your expectations are of a floral garden. Spikenard has a profound and complex aroma, a combination sweet/spicy/musky, a very organic earthy scent. The root from which the finest fragrance is obtained is tufted and sort of "hairy" in appearance; at one time it was surmised that spikenard was an animal's tail. (Remember, the plant came from very far away. Those who obtained it many miles away never saw the living plant and the perfumers of the time were a mysterious bunch, who kept their trade secrets to themselves.) Pliny called spikenard root "little goat".

A historically correct re-creation of Tutankhamun's precious unguent might involve rendering goose fat for a base. A version more palatable to modern tastes might substitute coconut oil. The original excavators of the tomb noted the unguent's resemblance to coconut oil; like animal fats, this vegetable material solidifies at cool temperatures, thus approximating the texture of the ancient perfume

The upper courtyard of the temple is badly ruined. Its original roof was supported by 16-sided columns

The Temple of Hathor The south side of the Punt Colonnade opens into the Temple of Hathor, which originally was entered from its east side by steps. The temple is now ruined, but originally was formed of two colonnades on different levels. Both colonnades contained 16-sided columns and either square ones with Hathor capitals (lower colonnade) or rounded Hathor columns with some preserved reliefs (upper colonnade).

The Upper Courtyard:
The upper courtyard of the temple is badly ruined. Its original roof was supported by 16-sided columns, and several colossal statues of the queen, that were reshaped later, by "Thotmose III," into pillars. The court opens by a giant granite gate at the end of the ramp from the middle courtyard. Immediately behind that gate, once stood a hypostyle hall which is was totally ruined by Coptic monks during the Roman persecution period. On the north side of the courtyard is a chapel, with its entrance opening at the northeast corner of the Upper Courtyard.

The Chapel The Upper Courtyard open into a Vestibule, with three 16-sided columns supporting its roof. Opposite the entrance is a niche with reliefs of the queen, and on the rear wall she is seen in the presence of Amon. On the side walls, she is seen seated to a table with a priest in front of her.

The vestibule leads to an Open Court (west side), with an alter in its middle raised over 10 steps. The alter was dedicated to Ra-Harakhty (Ra associated with Horus). A niche at the rear wall shows the queen making offerings. The north wall of the court opens into the two-chambered chapel, with most of its reliefs chiseled away later.

The side walls of the first chamber show the queen making offerings to Amon and the gods of the dead (Osiris, Anubis, Sokar and Emewet). She was also shown with her father "Thotmose I" in front of the sign of the god Emewet at the rear wall of that chamber.

The second chamber shows "Thotmose I" and his mother "Senseneb" making offerings to Anubis. Hatshepsut and her mother "Ahmose" are seen on the left side wall making offerings to Amon. This was a further bypassing of the memory of "Thotmose II", and more of reverence to Hatshepsut’s own father. The skies at night with its stars are represented on the roof.

The Mortuary Chapel of Hatshepsut

The Mortuary Chapel of the queen is located on the south side of the Upper Courtyard. It is a well-preserved vaulted chamber, with its rear wall having a doorway that leads into the realm of the afterlife. On both sides of the entrance are reliefs showing sacrificed animals being slaughtered. The side walls of the chapel show priests burning incenses, performing rituals and offering gifts to Hatshepsut, who is seated in the front.

The rear wall of the Upper Courtyard has several niches. The larger ones once contained statues of the queen, and the smaller ones show reliefs with representations of Hatshepsut and "Thotmose III" in the presence of various gods. In the center of that wall is the entrance to the Sanctuary.

At the north end (right side) of the wall behind the Chapel is the Hall of Amon, with its partially preserved roof decorated with stars on blue background representing the sky. The left hand wall of the hall shows the queen in the presence of Amon and Amon-Min (god of virility), while the right hand one shows "Thotmose III" in equivalent presentations. Originally Hatshepsut was depicted with Amon on the rear wall, but was later replaced with "Thotmose III". All figure of the deities were later defaced by "Akhen-Aton".

On the left hand side of the western wall (south end of the Upper Courtyard) and adjacent to the Mortuary Temple; is a small chamber with a well-preserved roof. Its right side wall originally showed Hatshepsut in the presence of Amon-Ra, with her guardian spirit behind. An offering table later replaced the queen’s figure. That of "Thotmose II" on the left side wall also replaced her figure while offering the sacred oil to Amon. On the rear wall, the figure of "Thotmose I" replaced that of Hatshepsut, and is seen with "Thotmose III" making offerings to Amon.

The Sanctuary

A granite gate in the middle of the rear wall of the Upper Courtyard of the temple opens into a small passage leading to the Sanctuary, which is hewn inside the rocks. The sanctuary originally contained only two chambers with vaulted roofs and niches, but a third one was later added by "Eugretes II" (146 – 117 BC). This was dedicated to Imhotep and Amon-Hotep whom the Ptolomies much venerated. The three chambers are badly damaged.

Some reliefs could still be identified in the first chamber; in which Hatshepsut, "Thotmose III" and princess "Nefru-Ra" are seen making offerings to the barque of Amon. Behind them are seen "Thotmose I" and Queen "Ahmose" (Hatshepsut’s parents) with her small sister "Bit-Nefru". The scene is better preserved on the right side wall, but on the left one, only "Thotmose III" and "Nefru-Ra" can be identified.

Architecture

Among the outstanding monuments Hatshepsut has erected were the famous granite obelisks. "Thotmose I" started to erect two obelisks at el-Karnak (each measuring 57 meters, according to Herodotus), but one was left on the ground without any inscriptions, while the other included the names of "Thotmose I" and "Thotmose III". As the reign of "Thotmose II" lasted less than the 30 years to celebrate the festival of "Sed", and probably due to Hatshepsut’s – his wife – reverence to her father’s memory, the obelisk was left untouched, and came later to inscribe on it, beside two other ones which she were cut during her reign. On the one left from "Thotmose I", she related this obelisk to herself, in an unusual fashion. The text is almost an oath that the granite was cut in her 15th year, and lasted seven months. It is obvious that her aim was assert that her reign has followed her father’s, totally neglecting "Thotmose II". The transport of this obelisk from Aswan and its erection were depicted in the Lower Colonnade of el-Deir el-Bahary Temple, but were subjected to much defacement. Both obelisks at el-Karnak are believed to have been coated with gold.

It is very difficult to decide what has Hatshepsut built at el-Karnak because of the massive destruction her monuments have during her successors’ reigns. Beyond the 4th Pylon was a ruined temple dating to the Middle Kingdom, which included a sanctuary. The sanctuary was renewed with some colored reliefs made on the northern wall. Two doors were opened in the northern and southern walls, each leading to six chambers for storage, and a warehouse for incenses. A huge alter was placed, ands a small temple was built with her name engraved hidden between its stones. She depicted herself kneeling in the presence of Amon, who was touching her during her coronation. "Thotmose III" came later to build the 5th Pylon and his temple at that place.

Adjacent to Amon’s Temple, Hatshepsut has built another temple facing the east, so that the sun would shine throwing its lights even into the sanctuary. The temple included two sitting statues for herself (south side) and for "Thotmose III" (north side), with numerous marble ones showing her sitting in the presence of Amon. The two granite obelisks were placed in that temple. Later, "Akhen-Aton" (Amon-Hotep IV") came to build his own temple over her’s. Both temples are now ruined.

The old town of Armant (23 Km south of Luxor) was the southern boundary of Thebes, which was known as "The Upper Egyptian On" (to differentiate it from "Heliopolis-On" of the north). Hatshepsut built a temple there dedicated to the war god "Munt". The temple carried her name as well as "Thotmose III", who later renewed it and included a stele over which he recorded the start of his reign.

On the west bank opposite Thebes at "Medinet Habu" (City of Habu), was a small unfinished temple of "Amon-Hotep I" dedicated to commemorate the glories of the Middle Kingdom. This was continued by "Thotmose I", "Thotmose II" then finalized by Hatshepsut. The temple is raised over seven small steps, with five adjacent chambers deeply hewn, and a separate one forming a sanctuary. On the walls of the sanctuary, Hatshepsut depicted her titles in seven forms. At el-Qurna, she also built a pier and a citadel. She was depicted on a stele there with "Thotmose III" who was wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt.

Architecture outside Thebes:

Outside Thebes (Luxor), Hatshepsut decided to reconstruct the temples that were devastated by the Hyksos. At el-Qouseya (330 Km south of Cairo), and in the ancient capital of the 14th nome (city of "Kis" - now el-Weseia), Hatshepsut renewed the Temple of Hathor, the cow goddess. At el-Ashmunein, capital of the 15th nome (296 Km south of Cairo), she renewed the temple of Amnemhat II, which was dedicated to glorify the Ibis or baboon headed Thot, the moon god and god of writing and learning. The temple was built at the site of the ancient "Sacred city of Khmunu" or the "City of Deities", the center of Thot’s cult. According to the ancient mythology, it was believed that on a primal hill, Thot has created eight primal frog gods who in turn engendered the egg from which the sun grew. Hatshepsut enforced the gates of the temple by marble and golden shutter leaves, renewed its furniture, and erected an alter made of gold and silver, as well as a golden statue of Amon. The festivals were revived, and the rituals performed by the local priests were re-organized in dedication to the sacred ennead as well as the gods Khnum and Heqet.

At Kom-Ombo (97 Km south of Luxor), Hatshepsut renewed also the Temple of "Amon-Hotep I", which was dedicated to the crocodile god Sobek, the Nile god. In that temple set over cliffs overlooking the Nile, she depicted herself during her early reign with "Thotmose III", each wearing one of the Egyptian crowns. She also renewed the temples of the 11th and 12th dynasties kings at el-Cab (38 Km south of Luxor). All are now destroyed, with only few stones found carrying her name.

Two other temples were hewn in the rocks. The temple known as "Speos Artemidos" (The Gretto of Artemis) or "Istabl Antar" (Antar’s stable) was built so high on the cliffs near Beni-Hassan (270 Km south of Cairo). This included a vestibule and a narrow passage leading to a sanctuary, and on its façade she made a long dedication recording the annals of her supremacy forever. The importance of this temple lies in her trial to ascribe the expulsion of the Hyksos to herself. In the original design, she made no mention of "Thotmose III", but later, he and "Seti I" added their names and defaced her’s.

The other temple known as "Batn el-Baqara" was hewn in the same valley during her joint reign with her brother and husband "Thotmose II", and was dedicated also to "Pakhet". It included only a small niche (160 x 98 cm), and on the façade, Hatshepsut and "Thotmose III" were depicted making offerings to the gods Pakhet, Khnum, Hathor and Harakhty. Though it seems that "Thotmose III" was more dignified there, he came later to deface her image and names. Princess "Nefru-Ra" was also shown following her mother, and the titles were dignifying her as "The god’s hand". The temple was later occupied by Coptic monks during the early centuries AD during the Roman persecution.

Some colored pottery found in a mine at Sinai included the image of Hatshepsut. It seems that the scribe was confused, as he wrote the name "Maat-Ka-Ra Thotmose" as one and the same pharaoh.

Hatshepsut’s death and burial

Hatshepsut decided to be buried with her father "Thotmose I" in the Valley of Kings. A tunnel was dug behind the huge cliffs of el-Deir el-Bahary Temple, to the east side of the Valley of Kings. Thus the mortuary rituals performed for her Ka after her death, would be immediately above her tomb, allowing the Ka to ascend each morning and witness the sunrise. The tunnel is about 700 feet long, and was dug 300 feet under ground level, with some rightwards deviation to avoid the rocky bed.

In an exaggerated reverence to her father, Hatshepsut made another sarcophagus for him to be included in her burial chamber. His mummy was moved from its original tomb to be buried with her. Some of his mortuary furniture was found, including a marble vessel bearing the name of "The Royal Wife Hatshepsut". This was her title during the life of her husband "Thotmose II" when her father was buried, and she was never called so when her own tomb was built. Two other vessels were found, one harboring the names of her father and mother, and the other those of "Thotmose I’ and "II". Such act was a further instigation to "Thotmose III", as it showed her reign to be immediately following her father’s. "Thotmse II" would thus look like a usurper, beside her intentional ignoring of the later, and depicting her parents in the chapel at the Upper Courtyard of the temple.

The tomb that was later looted, and a sarcophagus bearing her name was found at el-Deir el-Bahary in AD 1881, but proved to belong to another princess of the 21st dynasty. A chest containing the four canopic jars and two unidentified female bodies were also found, but no evidence could prove that these were hers’.

The last mention of Hatshepsut was on her 17th regal year, when she died on the 10th day of the 6th month of the 22nd year (early February). The circumstances of her death remain uncertain, but seem to be natural. "Thotmose III" arranged for her funerary ceremonies, as he was shown at Karnak wearing the White Crown, with two statues of the embalmed queen wearing the Red Crown, and acquiring the traditional Osirian position.

"Thotmose III" started to appear alone as a sole pharaoh. Immediately he recorded his authority on a relief dedicated to "Monto", the war god, in boasting of his physical power, and how he could kill 7 lions and capture 12 wild bulls all alone. The exaggeration seems to be camouflaging his previous submission during Hatshepsut’s life. Soon after he retrieved kingship, "Thotmose III" started leading 17 campaigns in Gaza, Palestine, Syria and Nubia, which restored Egypt’s domination over the Near East. Some years after Hatshepsut’s death, he started mutilating her inscriptions and surrounded her obelisk by a wall. This did not take place immediately after the queen’s death, as it seems "Thotmose III" had to wait for the death of some remaining officials who were loyal to her. Hatshepsut’s name never appeared in any later annals.

The defacement of Hatshepsut’s monuments

Few years after Hatshepsut’s death, "Thotmose III" started his revenge. He started to erase her name, which was so crucial for an ancient Egyptian and constituted an integral part of existence during afterlife. "Thotmose III" started by chiseling the names off the inscriptions, and replaced them by his own, those of "Thotmose I or II" or were left vacant. He aimed to give an impression of the continuity of the three pharaohs’ reign uninterrupted by Hatshepsut. This was followed by defacing her reliefs. Her statues were smashed, burned and soaked in water, particularly those of the "Ka". The eyes and nose of the statues were smashed so the deceased queen could not see or breathe in her afterlife, and uraeus (royal cobra placed on the forehead) was smashed too, to deprive her any power.

What "Thotmose III" failed to destroy, he remolded and related to himself. At el-Karnak after destroying her statue sitting beside Amon, the design of the god’s figure did not make any sense. Amon was made to stand instead of sitting, and the base of the smashed queen’s statue was replaced by drawings. On top of one obelisk, the queen was kneeling on her knees, with Amon performing her coronation. Removal of the queen’s figure rendered the god’s hand stretched for no reason, and hence a wand was placed in it. When he could not deface the inscriptions on another obelisk, he simply surrounded it by a high fence. At the top which could not be hidden, he replaced her name and figure with his. In one temple when he failed to coat with gold to hide her name, "Thotmose III" dismantled it. He also usurped the golden gates of her temples and utilized the stones of a temple to tile his orchard. This was disclosed when the name of the queen was later found in its base.

Senenmut

The story of Hatshepsut is never complete without "Senenmut". During the early co-regency, she had full support of "Hapuseneb", the High Priest of Amon and other officials, whom she allowed to build their tombs within the rocks above her temple at el-Deir el-Bahary.

"Senenmut" was the most powerful and loyal man in her court, who was a descendant of a family known to be loyal to the Thotmosid house. He himself has worked with her father as an overseer of the royal palace, and accompanied him in his military campaigns. As soon as her father died, Senenmut wasted no time to gain Hatshepsut’s confidence. He was given many authorities, as Hatshepsut’s adviser, overseer of the "She-Horus House", all royal properties as well as some temples. In addition, Senenmut was a talent architecture, and has left his fingerprints at her mortuary temple. The Louvre Museum in Paris displays his statue carrying his architectural tools.

The relation between him and the queen was so unique and vague. Some scholars believe in a secret intimate relationship, and some even suspect that he was the actual father of her daughter "Nefru-Ra". Several statues at Cairo Museum show him with the princess. One of which shows her sitting on his lap with his chin touching her head. The princess is shown with a ponytail and her finger in her mouth. Another statue shows him hiding the princess with his arms and knees, and another statue at Chicago Museum show Senenmut standing, while the princess was seated on his arm, and touching his shoulder. Moreover, the tomb of Senenmut’s parents show his mother with a scarab ring given to her by Hathor, and among her furniture was a sarcophagus bearing the name of the princess.

Among the authorities of Senemut was the "Overseer of Private Chambers", including the queen’s own bedroom and bathroom.

So many statues of Senenmut were built by Hatshepsut at Thebes and Karnak. His name was also inscribed with the queen’s at the Temple of Hathor in el-Deir el-Bahary. However, the most unusual privilege was his figure that he depicted in small niches of this temple, which were hidden behind the doors. Once the doors were closed at night, his figures would appear worshipping her and Amon in the darkness of the temple, an act that no other architect in history has ever dared to do. He was also permitted an unprecedented honor, which was his burial within the courtyard of the queen’s temple. in this tomb, her images were depicted everywhere, with Senenmut in a worshipping position. A cartouche of "Maat-Ka-Ra" (Hatshepsut) was also placed over the symbol off gold.

An unfinished tomb above el-Deir el-Bahary was found with some graffiti. One of these shows a drawing of Senenmut, and on another wall there is a sketch showing a female Pharaoh in passive submission to a male figure. It was unverified if this was a contemporary comment on their relationship, a later satire, or simply a fantasy.

Suddenly in the 16th regal year of Hatshepsut, Senenmut was replaced two officials, a vizier (prime minister) and an overseer of the royal palace. It is uncertain whether he resigned after the death of "Nefru-Ra" or was deposed. Few months later, he disappeared from all documents, and it is not confirmed if he died naturally, or was assassinated by "Thotmose III" associates. From then onwards, "Thotmose III" started to acquire more authorities. In either case, Senenmut was buried in dignifying necessary for a noble who and his family have served the Thosmosid House since Queen "Ahmose", Hatshepsut’s mother

The remaining reliefs on the rear wall of the north colonnade

The rear row pillars are 16-sided uncrowned ones. The inscriptions and reliefs on the columns are now erased, with very few that could still be seen.

The remaining reliefs on the rear wall of the north colonnade (on the right side of the ramp) represent the ritual hunting and fishing in sacred ponds. A water fowl being caught by a net in a pond could be seen.

The rear wall of the south colonnade (on the left side of the ramp) shows later-defaced reliefs representing the obelisks transported through the Nile from Aswan and erected at el-Karnak. The text started by the queen’s titles, her instructions to build the ships and the transport of the obelisks. She also mentioned how the men were gathered from allover Egypt in Elephantine for this task. Twenty-seven rowing boats in three rows were used, with other ones around for the priests who were burning incenses and praying to bless this mission. The boats then landed at Thebes, and the scene then shows soldiers celebrating, and priests preparing sacrifices. The text also mentions that the obelisks were erected in celebration of her "Sed Festival" (30 years of coronation). It is notable that the name of "Thotmose III" appeared within the text by sailors who cheered for him with the queen. Hatshepsut was depicted making offerings to Amon, but later was defaced.

On both sides of the ramp, a great serpent (representing evil) was depicted, together with the lion that conquered it.

The Middle Courtyard:

The first ramp ascends to end in the Middle Courtyard which is bounded also at the west end by a colonnaded terrace. Another ramp (leading to the upper courtyard) divides it into a northern colonnade on the right side (The Birth Colonnade) and a southern one on the left side (The Punt Colonnade).

The Birth Colonnade

This part depicts the legend of Hatshepsut’s birth and her coronation by Amon. The roof is supported by 22 square pillars in two rows, all showing the same scenes on their four sides: Amon laying his hand in blessing on the shoulder of Hatshepsut. The figures were later obliterated.

The rear wall shows Ahmose, Hatshepsut’s mother, while pregnant with Khnum and the midwife frog-headed Heqet (goddess of birth). In another relief, Ahmose is seen standing opposite to the Ibis-headed god Thot.

The north side of the colonnade opens into 4 unfinished chambers. At the very north end, two steps lead into a vestibule supported by 12 columns, each with 16 sides.

The Vestibule is small and almost square-shaped, leading to the Chapel of Anubis. Its roof is painted in blue to represent the sky, with glistening stars within.

The vestibule contains a small niche, above which "Thotmose III" is seen offering wine to the god Sokar (god of the dead, and guardian of the entrance to the underworld). Hatshepsut (obliterated figure) is seen with Anubis, and on its left she is standing in front of the symbol of Emewet (god of the dead).

Another niche shows Hatshepsut standing before Osiris, and Nekhbet (protective goddess of Upper Egypt) and Harakhty (Horus of the Horizon) are seen with the defaced name of Hatshepsut in between.

At the rear wall (west) of the vestibule, three steps lead to the Chapel of Anubis. On both sides of the entrance, Hatshepsut was depicted making offerings to Amon on the left, and Anubis on the right wall. Gifts are seen heaped in front of both gods.

The Chapel of Anubis consists of three chambers with vaulted roofs. The walls of the three chambers show well-preserved colored paintings of the queen with various gods, particularly Anubis. "Thotmose III" is shown only once in the second chamber with the god Sokar.

The Punt Colonnade
The Punt Colonnade lies on the left (southern) side of the ramp, and is identical in construction to the Birth Colonnade. It was dedicated to commemorate the voyage to the Land of Punt. Most of its reliefs are now damaged.

The south (left) wall of the colonnade shows a coastal village in the Land of Punt. Beehive-shaped huts that were raised upon long pegs and entered by ladders, are seen within the shadows of palms and incense trees. The unarmed Egyptian delegate Nehsi is seen followed by his guards, and received by the king of Punt followed by the queen. The queen was obese with redundant skin and wearing ornaments around her legs. She was followed first by her two sons and a daughter, then by 3 local officials with a saddled donkey. The underlying text denotes their submission to the sun god, and reverence to the "king" of Egypt.

The reliefs also showed the features of the Puntine people, who were black Africans, as well as another race much resembling Egyptians. The later group of inhabitants was depicted as red colored (as the traditional color of Egyptians in ancient art), wearing a small beard resembling those of Egyptian priests and the short Egyptian shirts. Donkeys were depicted as the method of transporting goods, and white dogs guarding the people’s houses. Birds, monkeys, leopards and hippopotamus are also seen, as well as giraffes which are typical African animals, to live in Punt. Nehsi is then shown in front of his tent with a banquet offered to his guests, and observing the gifts presented.

The right side wall shows the departure of the convoy with the ships laden with merchandise and monkeys hanging on the masts. The west (rear) wall shows on the left side the arrival of the ships at Luxor. It is worth mention that only the departure and arrival of ships were depicted without documenting details of passing through any land, which has raised suspicion of a direct route through the Nile. Above, Puntines and Egyptians are seen with gifts to the queen. The queen is then shown with her guarding spirit dedicating the gifts to Amon. Gold is being weighed, with Seshet (the goddess of scribes) recording, while Horus was operating the scale. Thoth is also seen measuring the amount of incense, with seven trees in a tub. Hatshepsut is then shown with Amon but the inscription in between was obliterated. "Thotmose III" is seen offering an incense to the barque of Amon. The text shows one of Hatshepsut’s forgeries, when it mentions that Amon praised her as the first pharaoh to reach this land. It also mentioned that all remote voyages there were only rumors and legends.

The north (right) wall of the colonnade shows the queen seated under a canopy - with her spirit behind – in front of numerous dignitaries. She announced that the trees were to be planted in her temple, as her father Amon has ordered